Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 28

Psychology - Essay Example With reference to humans, excellent semantic and episodic memory is present. We are able to remember and recall events with accordance to time, place and manner. Also, humans have the ability to learn and retain tasks and perform them successfully. Using memory is not confined to humans but also to non human animals. Considering animals, it has been difficult to prepare models to test the episodic memory of animals, which can be mainly due to the difference of level of consciousness between humans and non humans. Nevertheless the studies that have been carried out, though they have not yet been able to successfully differentiate between episodic recollection of events from semantic factual knowledge in animals; however, in the main it is assumed that animals recall incidents with no past-time orientation . A dog may be able to remember a familiar face, but would be unable to remember when or where it saw previously. Contradictory to this theory, episodic-like memory has been observed in certain birds. Experiments involving food-caching trials show that some type of birds have been able to successfully recollect the location of their caches, while other types are also able to recall the contents of the cache. These experiments do provide us with substantial evidence that animals do not possess episodic memory as highly developed as humans but certain animals do exhibit some level of episodic-like memory. While taking semantic memory also in view, Tulving, a world-renowned experimental psychologist and cognitive neuroscientist, suggested that episodic memory is unique to humans and not found in animals. Therefore an animal responding to a stimulus for reward basis is demonstration of semantic memory rather than episodic memory (Grondin, 2008). On the other hand, other theories suggest that animals do not have enough semantic networks to develop this type of memory. Therefore their experiences are based on episodic memory. Apes however do display some

African american women underrepresantation in higher education Dissertation

African american women underrepresantation in higher education - Dissertation Example The African American women play a very important role in the academic field This alone calls for further research to find out the issues that surround the African American women in higher education.Since the beginning of 21st century, women have been integrated into the administration in most institutions of higher learning.However, they are hardly recognized and are only seen subordinates to the white women or black men. They are seen as a group that has no experience, even though they are equally competent with their colleagues (Anderson and Ramey, 1998). Still, there is a lot that needs to be done despite the fact that research has been done concerning the same. Research has in the past mainly concentrated on the students and the administration as a whole. This leaves the plight of the African American women unattended to. This literature review examines the following aspects. For one, I consider the policies that have been made by the judiciary, legislature and the executive conc erning the African American women in higher education. Secondly, the literature review focuses on the implementation of these policies, with an in depth focus on the state of Georgia. The third aspect that I will consider is the place of women in higher education. I will approach this by giving a comprehensive description of the same. Lastly, I will consider the future considerations of the policies that can enhance women’s representation in future. Main problems faced by African American women administrators ... This further leads to lack of influence and bottlenecks in achieving authority in these institutions. The third aspect that challenges these women is the prejudice on whether they are competent enough to lead other or make good management decision. Their families are also demanding, giving them limited chances of advancing in their careers. Fourthly, they face inequities in the opportunities of promotion and pay increase in these institutions (Eaglya and Johnson,1990). Many women have not been exposed to the opportunities of presidency. More so, they are still underrepresented in the faculties and in the senior most positions in the higher learning institutions. African American women have had to face limited chances in enrollment in the universities (Robson, 1985). This is mainly in North America, where a majority of women have no access to education. This explains why it is hard to have representation in the universities in such areas. The women also have balance between the tradit ional roles as homemakers and their professional careers. They are expected to do more than men, limiting their chances of rising as professional in any field (Eaglya and Johnson,1990). Further, their own views on what they are supposed to do in every day of their life, which limits their chances of fighting for their promotion in higher learning institutions (Robson, 1985). The responsibilities are both demanding, which means that a woman has limited chances of further education and thoroughness in their professionals. These are the very factors that warrant promotion and enhancement of leadership skills. Still, many women feel that their professional careers are secondary to their family roles and duties. Black women lack support by their spouses in the progression of their

Human Growth And Development

Human Growth And Development Human existence is not static and people are developing constantly (Thompson and Thompson, 2008: 83). For this reason, an understanding of development is central to undertaking professional social work at a high level of competence (Ibid.: 99). This case study focuses on Tony and Jan, their adopted nine year old son Sam, new baby and Jans mother Dorothy. It is evident from reading this familys background information that a social worker should consider theories of human growth and development in order to fully assess their circumstances and behaviour. Hence, this is where our attention will now turn but as time does not permit consideration of all family members, for the purpose of this assignment two will be concentrated on; Sam and Jan.   Sam Sam was adopted by Tony and Jan at four years old, a move which, despite initial reservations, was successful. However, in recent months Sams behaviour has deteriorated and this, alongside other problems, has led to the family seeking support. has long been regarded as significant in childrens development (Aldgate, 2007: 57). Bowlby (1977: 203) described attachment behaviour as behaviour resulting in a person attaining or retaining proximity to another differentiated and preferred individual, usually considered stronger and/or wiser. He considered it integral to human nature, seen to varying extents in all human beings and performed the biological function of protection (Bowlby, 1988: 22). can be affected when separated from a main attachment figure; especially if this happens involuntarily such as when a child is removed from their parents care (Aldgate, 2007: 64). Irrespective of their previous attachment experiences, they will find this frightening because â€Å"they do not know who to turn to help them return to a state of equilibrium† (Ibid.). This explains why children who have experienced abuse may still want to be with their parents, even if they are insecurely attached to them (Ibid.) and could illustrate why Sam was recently protesting that he wanted to go back to his real mother. Daniel (2006: 193) asserts children between the ages six months and four years are most vulnerable when separated from attachment figures because: â€Å"during these early years children lack the cognitive skills to comprehend the events leading to separation and this coupled with the propensity for magical thinking, means young children are highly likely to blame themselves for the loss†. Sam was adopted at four years old and although we know little about the circumstances with his birth parents, importantly his attachment bond was broken at this point. Aldgate (2007: 65) notes children who have lost attachment figures through entering the care system are at risk of further harm by insensitive responses to their attachment needs. Furthermore,   children beginning new placements with insecure attachment behaviour may test the parenting capacity of their carers (Ibid.) which could explain Sams recent deteriorating behaviour. Following two decades of research demonstrating that placement breakdown is an ongoing problem in the UK (Ibid.), practitioners working with this family should be especially careful to try to prevent this. Attachment theory differs from traditional psychoanalytic theories because it rejects the model of development proposing an individual passes through a series of stages, in which they may become fixated or regress (Bowlby, 1988: 135). Instead, this model sees the individual as progressing along one of many potential developmental pathways, some of which are or are not compatible with healthy development (Ibid.). Yet, the role of parents in shaping a childs personality has been critiqued by Harris (1999: xv; 359), who offers an alternative viewpoint in The Nurture Assumption and proposes it is experiences in childhood and adolescent peer groups that modify a childs personality in ways that will be carried forward to adulthood. Whats more, OConnor and Nilson (2007: 319) argue that amongst children in the foster care system, attachment is considered a powerful but diffuse source of behavioural and emotional problems. Almost any disruptive behaviour can be attributed to attachment diffic ulties in early relationships and the early experiences are often suggested as the only source of their problems, subsequently minimising the role of the current placement experiences (Ibid.). They contend following research demonstrating foster parents attachment and caregiving does influence the childs attachment to them, it is crucial that the impact of early attachment experiences on later development should not be considered independently of current caregiving environments (Ibid.: 320). Finally, providing that new attachment figures for children can respond to childrens attachment needs sensitively and are committed to handle any behaviour that may test their staying power, it is believed early patterns can be modified or discontinued (Aldgate, 2007: 66). Bronfenbrenners (1979) Ecology of Human Development looks beyond the impact of attachment to caregivers on development and offers much in terms of aiding our understanding of this families situation and behaviour. Bronfenbrenner (Ibid.: 3) developed his broader prospective to development, providing new conceptions of the developing person, the environment and the evolving interaction between them. He focussed on:   Ã‚   â€Å"the progressive accommodation, throughout the life span, between the growing human organism and the changing environments in which it actually lives and grows. The latter include not only the immediate settings containing the developing person but also the larger social contexts, both formal and informal, in which these settings are embedded†. (Bronfenbrenner, 1977: 513). According to Bronfenbrenner (1979.: 22), the ecological environment is comprised of a nested organisation of concentric structures with each one contained within the next. He labelled these the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem and each layer of a childs environment affects their development. When looking at the microsystem, the pattern of roles, interpersonal relations and activities experienced by the developing person in a given setting (Ibid.), there are ways this could have affected Sams development. For instance, within the family setting Jan has struggled to cope since the unexpected arrival of their baby, which subsequently could have affected Sams relationship with her. He now has to share his mothers attention with his sibling and may be feeling left out or jealous. Furthermore, the expense of IVF has resulted in Tony working more, rendering him absent from the household more frequently. This change may have influenced Sams relationship with Tony and he may be missing having his father around as in the past. Additionally, following his adoption, Dorothy felt uncertain whether to regard Sam as her real grandson, a tension which Sam may sensed himself. Bronfenbrenner   (Ibid.:7) also regarded the connections between other people in the setting of equal importance because of their indirect influence on the developing child through the effect they have on those who deal first hand with that person. Sams development could have been affected by strained relations between his parents as a result of Jan not receiving the support she needs from her husband due to his work commitments. Similarly, relations between Jan and Dorothy have become tense since the babys arrival with Jan expecting Dorothys assistance, which has not materialised. Beyond the microsystem, an exosystem refers to settings that the developing person is not involved in as an active participant but â€Å"in which events occur that affect, or are affected by, what happens in the setting containing the developing person† (Ibid.: 25). Bronfenbrenner (Ibid.) offered a childs parents place of work as an example and with the need for Tony to work as much as possible, a ny stresses he experiences in the work environment could impinge upon Sams development even though Sam spends no time in this setting himself.  Ã‚   This theory recognises everyone exists within a context influencing who they are and how they respond to situations in life (Phelan, 2004: online). Whilst   the building blocks in the environmental aspect of this theory were familiar concepts in the social and behavioural sciences, the way in which these entities relate to one another and to development was new (Bronfenbrenner, 1979: 8). Hence, before this theory, sociologists, psychologists and other specialists studied narrow aspects of childrens worlds (Brendtro, 2006: 163). However, Tudge et al.(2009: 6) evaluated the application of Bronfenbrenners theory in recently published work and found only 4 out of 25 papers claiming to be based on his theory had utilised it appropriately.   They contend if theory is to play an important role in developmental studies it must be applied correctly because:    â€Å"a failure to do so means that it has not been tested appropriately; data apparently supporting the theory do no such thing if the theory has been incorrectly described, and a misrepresented theory is impervious to attack from nonsupportive data† (Ibid.: 206).   Adoption is required when it is not possible for a child to return home, either because the parents are unable to care for them or change their lives in a way that would be safe for that child (Brent Council, 2010: online). Whilst we are uncertain of the circumstances leading to Sams adoption, we can speculate that the care provided by his birth parents was deficient. Infant brain research demonstrated that â€Å"if there is grossly inadequate care in infancy, the infants brain and other abilities that depend on brain development can be compromised† (Linke, 2000: online). The majority of the critical times for brain development occur before the age of six months and research indicated orphans adopted after this age made less progress than those adopted earlier (Ibid.). Furthermore, parts of the brain that regulate emotions and stress responses are organised early in a childs life and may not be changeable later (Ibid.). Subsequently, parts of the body and brain that respond to stress may become over sensitive and ready to respond to threat even when a threat is not manifest if the infant is continually exposed to trauma and stress (Ibid.). If Sam experienced   inadequate care in infancy it is possible that he has developed over sensitive stress responses and now regards the new baby as a threat, which could provide an explanation for his defiant behaviour and disinterest in his sibling. Pollak and the University of Wisconsin Child Emotion Lab are active in researching how early life experiences affect brain development (see Child Emotion Lab, 2009: online). However, he and his colleagues stress that not all children experiencing neglect develop the same problems (Wismer-Fries et al., 2005: 17239). In their work on the role of early social experience in subsequent brain development they found children experiencing lower hormonal reactivity may go on to develop satisfactory interpersonal relationships and highlighted potentially significant individual differences operating across the control group and the previously neglected group of children (Ibid.). Furthermore, other research led by Pollak has demonstrated how adjustable the brain can be when in the right environment (University of Wisconsin News, 2003: online). Their study of 5-6 year olds who lived in orphanages during their first seven to 41 months of life found that children performed better in many tests the longer they had lived with their adoptive families (Ibid.). Pollak (quoted in University of Wisconsin News, 2003: online) hopes these findings will encourage children to be placed in families rather than in institutional settings and â€Å"offer new avenues for designing more effective interventions that could help children who spent their early years in deprived environments reach their full potential†.  Ã‚   Jan Eriksons life cycle approach proposes at certain points in their lives, people encounter life crises creating a conflict within themselves as individuals and between themselves and other significant people in their lives (Gibson, 2007: 74). Each life crisis provides a conflict, characterised by a pull in different directions by two opposing dispositions, and if the individual achieves a favourable balance between these then they are as prepared as possible to move onto the next stage in the process (Ibid.). However, if one does not achieve this favourable ratio, this renders succeeding in subsequent life crises problematic (Ibid.). Generativity vs Stagnation is Eriksons seventh and penultimate stage of psychosocial development covering middle adulthood and generativity â€Å"is primarily the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation† (Erikson, 1965: 258) and represents the major conflict in adulthood (Slater, 2003: 57). As Slater (Ibid.) asserts, everybody has to face the crisis of parenthood whereby: â€Å"mmake a deliberate decision to become parents, but some become parents without conscious decision, others decide not to become parents, and still others want to become parents but cannot. The decision and its outcome provoke a crisis that calls for a re-examination of life roles†. Successfully achieving this sense of generativity is important for both the individual and society and parents demonstrate it through caring for their children (Slater, 2003: 57). A failure to achieve this leads to a feeling of stagnation and unproductivity (Heffner, 2001: online). Jan spent a long time trying to become a mother to fulfil this stage in Eriksons model and achieve a â€Å"favourable ratio† (Erikson, 1965: 262) of generativity over stagnation. After two years of trying to conceive, three unsuccessful attempts at IVF and two gruelling years of the adoption process, they adopted Sam and have since unexpectedly conceived naturally. However, as Erikson (Ibid.: 259) asserts â€Å" the mere fact of having or even wanting children does not achieve generativity†. Blyth (1999: 730) writing about assisted conception, importantly highlights parenthood after such efforts will not necessarily match expectations and Jans feelings of being a useless mother and finding mo therhood a struggle may be unexpected after trying for a family for such a long time. Furthermore, in this stage, the importance of adult mature dependency is implicitly inferred and suggests there are psychological rewards for those adults who can meet the needs of others and have other people dependent on them (Gibson, 2007: 83). Jan reports feeling unable to comfort her baby and meet their needs and this should be addressed by a social worker to prevent a â€Å"pervading sense of stagnation and impoverishment† (Erikson, 1965: 258) in this stage of the life cycle.   Slater (2003: 53) acknowledges Eriksons work, whilst grounded in psychoanalytic theory, rejects Freuds notion that personality is fixed by childhood experiences alone and provides an extension of the stages of development to cover adolescence, adulthood and old age. However, Rutter and Rutter (1993: 1-2) criticised theories such as Eriksons viewing psychological growth as a systematic progression through a series of stages in a predetermined order, through which everyone moves, taking them closer to maturity represented by adult functioning. This reliance on the universals of development and the notion of one developmental pathway has ignored individual differences (Ibid.). They   believe that whilst this theory made significant contributions to understanding the processes involved in development, Eriksons approach does not fit with what is known about socio-emotional development and â€Å"it is likely that children take a variety of paths, and adult outcomes cannot sensibly be re duced to mere differences in levels of maturity† (Ibid.: 2). Goffman (1963: preface- 3) employed the term stigma to refer to a deeply discrediting attribute of an individual that disqualifies them from full social acceptance. Their possession of this attribute that makes them different means they can be reduced in peoples minds from a whole person to a discounted and tainted one (Ibid.: 3). Furthermore, the wider societies standards mean the individual is aware of what others regard as their failing, which can inevitably cause them to believe they fall short of what they ought to be and subsequently shame becomes a central possibility (Ibid.: 7). His work offers insight into how Jan may be feeling about herself after being unable to conceive for such a long time because for many women, â€Å"infertility carries a hidden stigma born of shame and secrecy† (Whiteford Gonzales, 1995: 27). Involuntary childlessness can adversely affect an individuals relationships, their feelings about themselves and their ability to function, develop and pa rticipate in society â€Å"may be compromised by their inability to undertake conventional roles associated with parenting† (Blyth, 1999: 729-730). Whiteford Gonzalezs (Ibid.: 27-35) research on 25 women who sought medical treatment for infertility, demonstrated the hidden burden of infertility reflected in the stigma, pain and spoiled identities of those interviewed. The women in their sample experienced the consequences of their social identity and suffered because they had: â€Å"internalized the social norms expressed in dominant gender roles, and in so doing see themselves as defective. They suffer from being denied the opportunity proceed with their lives as others do† (Ibid.: 35). Goffman (1963: 9) believed the stigmatised person often responds to their situation by making an attempt to correct their failing. This is evident in Whiteford Gonzales (1995.: 35) study where the women attempted to remedy their problem and fix the broken part of them, giving all they could to become a   normal and whole person and remove the stigma of being infertile. Unfortunately, failure is the most likely outcome of infertility treatment (Blyth, 1999: 729-730), as experienced by Tony and Jan, who had three unsuccessful attempts at IVF before withdrawing from the programme. Moreover, Goffman (1963: 9) emphasised that where such a repair is possible, this does not necessarily lead to the acquisition of fully normal status. Instead â€Å"a transformation of self from someone with a particular blemish into someone with a record of having corrected a particular blemish† (Ibid.) occurs, which Jan, who has successfully overcome her infertility and become a mother may be experi encing. One significant criticism levelled at Goffmans theory is of the apparently helpless role attributed to individuals with stigmatic qualities (Carnevale, 2007: 12). Furthermore, Nettleton (2006: 96) reiterates the importance of recognising stigma is not an attribute of the individual but a â€Å"thoroughly social concept which is generated, sustained and reproduced in the context of social inequalities† instead. Nonetheless, Goffmans model remains dominant and highly respected and his representation of the social difficulties people with stigmatic qualities face is still considered highly valid (Carnevale, 2007: 12). Whilst attachment behaviour is especially evident in childhood, it also characterises people from cradle to the grave (Bowlby, 1977: 203). Furthermore, the capacity to form intimate emotional bonds in both the care giving and care seeking role is considered a principal feature of effective personality functioning and mental health (Bowlby, 1988: 121). Bowlby (1977.: 206) proposed there was a strong relationship between a persons experiences with their parents and their later ability to form affectional bonds and that: â€Å"common variations in that capacity, manifesting themselves in marital problems and trouble with children as well as in neurotic symptoms and personality disorders, can be attributed to certain common variations in the ways that parents perform their roles† (Ibid.). Subsequently, attachment theory advocates believe many forms of psychiatric disorders can be attributed to failure of the development of attachment behaviour (Bowlby, 1977: 201). This is supported by et als. (1996: 310) research which found insecure attachment appeared to impact upon self-esteem and self worth contingencies resulting in depressive symptoms in adulthood. Whilst we know little of Jans attachment behaviour as a child, her relationship with her mother is precarious at present and when looking at the symptoms that Jan is displaying they could infer she is experiencing postnatal depression. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was developed by Cox et al. (1987) to assist health care professionals recognise postnatal depression. Statements used to identify the condition include: â€Å"Things have been getting on top of me†; â€Å"I have been feeling sad or miserable†; â€Å"I have been anxious or worried for no good reason† and â€Å"I have blamed myself unnecessarily when things went wrong†, all of which could be applied to how Jan is feeling at present. Moreover, her constant low mood and feelings of inadequacy as a mother match some of the symptoms of postnatal depression described on NHS Directs (2008: online) website. Therefore, whilst this is only a tentative explanation of Jans feelings, it should be explored by the social worker working with this family.   Additionally, unresolved childhood attachment issues can leave adults vulnerable to experiencing difficulties in forming secure adult relationships (Evergreen Consultants in Human Behaviour, 2006: online). Attachment problems can be handed down transgenerationally unless the chain is broken and therefore, an insecurely attached adult may lack the ability to form a strong attachment with their own child (Ibid). Subsequently, uthis theory offers the possibility that poor formation of affectional bonds in Jans own childhood could explain why she is struggling to form an attachment bond with her own baby. Furthermore, new relations can be affected by expectations developed in previous relationships and there is a strong correlation between insecure adult attachment and marital dissatisfaction (Ibid.). This could offer an explanation for why Jan believes Tony does not provide the emotional support she requires. Nonetheless, whilst trauma experienced in the early years can be associated with problems in the long term, it should not be assumed this is disastrous for a childs physical, cognitive and emotional development and will automatically blight the rest of a their life (Daniel, 2006: 195). As Barth et al. (2005: 259) contend, while attachment problems may predispose a child towards later problems, these problems must be evaluated and treated within the context of their current environment. Social work practitioners providing appropriate interventions can make a long-term difference because adversity experienced in the early years can be compensated for and the worst effects ameliorated if support is given (Daniel, 2006: 195). Evidently, an understanding of human development theory provides more than an interesting background topic and is indispensable to good social work practice (and Thompson, 2008: 139). Whilst no theories providing insights into development are foolproof, in combination they have much to offer to a practitioners understanding of those they work with. Thus, it is imperative a social worker should consider biological, psychological and sociological approaches in order to carry out a full and holistic assessment of this familys needs. However,as Thompson and Thompson (Ibid.) assert, it is easy for practitioners to wrongly believe the knowledge base will offer off-the-peg, ready-made answers and simply apply theories to practice in a mechanical, blanket fashion. Therefore, it is important for skilled reflective practitioners to be competent at drawing out relevant aspects of the theory base and employ them in a way that is tailored to fit the situation instead (Ibid.). Moreover, as Thompson (2009: 63) emphasises, there is a danger that when looking at   development across the life course it can be used as a rigid framework that we expect everyone to fit into and then regard those who do not as abnormal or having a problem. Consequently, it must be recognised that this traditional approach taken to development across the the life course can be very oppressive and discriminate against those who do not conform to the trend (Ibid.). For this reason, the life course should be considered as a means of â€Å"beginning to understand common stages of development and is not a rigid framework for making judgements about abnormality† (Ibid.). To conclude, as Thompson and Thompson (2008: 99) remind us, understanding development is not making everyone fit into a stereotypical assumption about what is normal but rather to recognise there are significant patterns that underpin growth and development and to the attitudes and behaviours associated with thes e.

The Bennets: Experts in the Field of Inter-Family Conflict Avoidance :: essays research papers

The Bennets: Experts in the Field of Inter-Family Conflict Avoidance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Father looks across the dinner table and kindly asks his darling wife to pass the dinner rolls while Suzie is lovingly telling about her second grade teacher’s neat handwriting. The linen tablecloth is firmly pressed and the home-cooked meal is thankfully devoured. The yellow-checkered dinner plates are freshly washed, and the smell of lilacs from the garden drifts through the sunlit dining room. Billy smiles at his mother as he asks her if he could please have some more of her â€Å"deliciously home grown asparagus.† Mother nods to Billy and passes him the serving dish. When the family has had their fill, Suzie volunteers to do the dishes and Billy habitually clears the table and brings each of his parents a glass of dessert wine. Mother and Father then proceed to enjoy their wine as they talk of Beethoven and Monet.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This is a family without conflicts. Everybody dreams of one, nobody has one. It is impossible, and makes for a very unrealistic, and also a very boring, story. An imperfect family can be used in literature in order to make fiction believable and often more relative to the reader. By showing a character’s flaws, the author can add texture and depth to a story. Jane Austen definitely uses this idea in her famous novel: Pride and Prejudice. Not one of her characters is perfect. These flaws add drama to the plot in the same way that dressing adds flavor to a salad. The weaknesses of one character often foil the strengths of another: Lydia’s goofy foolishness has the affect of bringing out the sense and patience of Jane and Elizabeth. Mr. Wickham’s false personality and immoral behavior toward the Bennets proves Mr. Darcy’s truthfulness and emphasizes his kind and thoughtful personality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although faults often bring out the best in literature, a psychologist would suggest that the Bennets need some severe family counseling. Mr. and Mrs. Bennet should never have been married; they contradict the idea that opposites attract. Mr. Bennet had married because he was â€Å"captivated by youth and beauty, and [the] appearance of good humour which youth and beauty generally give†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (201) He married for the wrong reasons and suffers the consequences of his choice. Mrs. Bennet is described as an ignorant woman with weak understanding and an illiberal mind. Mr. Bennet is unhappy with the relationship as soon as the physical attraction wears off.

Interpersonal and Transferable Skills Essay

You’re probably familiar with the phrase ‘what gets measured gets done.’ Defining and measuring effectiveness – especially the performance of workers – is a critical part of your job as a manager. The question is: How do you define the skills, behaviors, and attitudes that workers need to perform their roles effectively? How do you know they’re qualified for the job? In other words, how do you know what to measure? Some people think formal education is a reliable measure. Others believe more in on-the-job training, and years of experience. Still others might argue that personal characteristics hold the key to effective work behavior. All of these are important, but none seems sufficient to describe an ideal set of behaviors and traits needed for any particular role. Nor do they guarantee that individuals will perform to the standards and levels required by the organization. A more complete way of approaching this is to link individual performance to the goals of the business. To do this, many companies use ‘competencies.’ These are the integrated knowledge, skills, judgment, and attributes that people need to perform a job effectively. By having a defined set of competencies for each role in your business, it shows workers the kind of behaviors the organization values, and which it requires to help achieve its objectives. Not only can your team members work more effectively and achieve their potential, but there are many business benefits to be had from linking personal performance with corporate goals and values. Defining which competencies are necessary for success in your organization can help you do the following: †¢ Ensure that your people demonstrate sufficient expertise. †¢ Recruit and select new staff more effectively. †¢ Evaluate performance more effectively. †¢ Identify skill and competency gaps more efficiently. †¢ Provide more customized training and professional development. †¢ Plan sufficiently for succession. †¢ Make change management processes work more efficiently. How can you define the set of practices needed for effective performance? You can do this by adding a competency framework to your talent management program. By collecting and combining competency information, you can create a standardized approach to performance that’s clear and accessible to everyone in the company. The framework outlines specifically what people need to do to be effective in their roles, and it clearly establishes how their roles relate to organizational goals and success. This article outlines the steps you need to take to develop a competency framework in your organization. Design Principles of a Competency Framework A competency framework defines the knowledge, skills, and attributes needed for people within an organization. Each individual role will have its own set of competencies needed to perform the job effectively. To develop this framework, you need to have an in-depth understanding of the roles within your business. To do this, you can take a few different approaches: †¢ Use a pre-set list of common, standard competencies, and then customize it to the specific needs of your organization. †¢ Use outside consultants to develop the framework for you. †¢ Create a general organizational framework, and use it as the basis for other frameworks as needed. Developing a competency framework can take considerable effort. To make sure the framework is actually used as needed, it’s important to make it relevant to the people who’ll be using it – and so they can take ownership of it. The following three principles are critical when designing a competency framework: 1. Involve the people doing the work – These frameworks should not be developed solely by HR people, who don’t always know what each job actually involves. Nor should they be left to managers, who don’t always understand exactly what each member of their staff does every day. To understand a role fully, you have to go to the source – the person doing the job – as well as getting a variety of other inputs into what makes someone successful in that job. 2. Communicate – People tend to get nervous about performance issues. Let them know why you’re developing the framework, how it will be created, and how you’ll use it. The more you communicate in advance, the easier your implementation will be. 3. Use relevant competencies – Ensure that the competencies you include apply to all roles covered by the framework. If you include irrelevant competencies, people will probably have a hard time relating to the framework in general. For example, if you created a framework to cover the whole organization, then financial management would not be included unless every worker had to demonstrate that skill. However, a framework covering management roles would almost certainly involve the financial management competency. Developing the Framework There are four main steps in the competency framework development process. Each steps has key actions that will encourage people to accept and use the final product. Step One: Prepare †¢ Define the purpose – Before you start analyzing jobs, and figuring out what each role needs for success, make sure you look at the purpose for creating the framework. How you plan to use it will impact whom you involve in preparing it, and how you determine its scope. For example, a framework for filling a job vacancy will be very specific, whereas a framework for evaluating compensation will need to cover a wide range of roles. †¢ Create a competency framework team – Include people from all areas of your business that will use the framework. Where possible, aim to represent the diversity of your organization. It’s also important to think about long-term needs, so that you can keep the framework updated and relevant. Step Two: Collect Information This is the main part of the framework. Generally, the better the data you collect, the more accurate your framework will be. For this reason, it’s a good idea to consider which techniques you’ll use to collect information about the roles, and the work involved in each one. You may want to use the following: †¢ Observe – Watch people while they’re performing their roles. This is especially useful for jobs that involve hands-on labor that you can physically observe. †¢ Interview people – Talk to every person individually, choose a sample of people to interview, or conduct a group interview. You may also want to interview the supervisor of the job you’re assessing. This helps you learn what a wide variety of people believe is needed for the role’s success. †¢ Create a questionnaire – A survey is an efficient way to gather data. Spend time making sure you ask the right questions, and consider the issues of reliability and validity. If you prefer, there are standardized job analysis questionnaires you can buy, rather than attempting to create your own. †¢ Analyze the work – Which behaviors are used to perform the jobs covered by the framework? You may want to consider the following: †¢ Business plans, strategies, and objectives. †¢ Organizational principles. †¢ Job descriptions. †¢ Regulatory or other compliance issues. †¢ Predictions for the future of the organization or industry. †¢ Customer and supplier requirements. Job analysis that includes a variety of techniques and considerations will give you the most comprehensive and accurate results. If you create a framework for the entire organization, make sure you use a sample of roles from across the company. This will help you capture the widest range of competencies that are still relevant to the whole business. †¢ As you gather information about each role, record what you learn in separate behavioral statements. For example, if you learn that Paul from accounting is involved in bookkeeping, you might break that down into these behavioral statements: handles petty cash, maintains floats, pays vendors according to policy, and analyzes cash books each month. You might find that other roles also have similar tasks – and therefore bookkeeping will be a competency within that framework. †¢ When you move on to Step Three, you’ll be organizing the information into larger competencies, so it helps if you can analyze and group your raw data effectively. Step Three: Build the Framework This stage involves grouping all of the behaviors and skill sets into competencies. Follow these steps to help you with this task: †¢ Group the statements – Ask your team members to read through the behavior statements, and group them into piles. The goal is to have three or four piles at first – for instance, manual skills, decision-making and judgment skills, and interpersonal skills. †¢ Create subgroups – Break down each of the larger piles into subcategories of related behaviors. Typically, there will be three or four subgroupings for each larger category. This provides the basic structure of the competency framework. †¢ Refine the subgroups – For each of the larger categories, define the subgroups even further. Ask yourself why and how the behaviors relate, or don’t relate, to one another, and revise your groupings as necessary. †¢ Indentify and name the competencies – Ask your team to identify a specific competency to represent each of the smaller subgroups of behaviors. Then they can also name the larger category. †¢ Here’s an example of groupings and subgroupings for general management competencies: †¢ Supervising and leading teams. †¢ Provide ongoing direction and support to staff. †¢ Take initiative to provide direction. †¢ Communicate direction to staff. †¢ Monitor performance of staff. †¢ Motivate staff. †¢ Develop succession plan. †¢ Ensure that company standards are met. †¢ Recruiting and staffing. †¢ Prepare job descriptions and role specifications. †¢ Participate in selection interviews. †¢ Identify individuals’ training needs. †¢ Implement disciplinary and grievance procedures. †¢ Ensure that legal obligations are met. †¢ Develop staff contracts. †¢ Develop salary scales and compensation packages. †¢ Develop personnel management procedures. †¢ Make sure staff resources meet organizational needs. †¢ Training and development. †¢ Deliver training to junior staff. †¢ Deliver training to senior staff. †¢ Identify training needs. †¢ Support personal development. †¢ Develop training materials and methodology. †¢ Managing projects/programs †¢ Prepare detailed operational plans. †¢ Manage financial and human resources. †¢ Monitor overall performance against objectives. †¢ Write reports, project proposals, and amendments. †¢ Understand external funding environment. †¢ Develop project/program strategy. You may need to add levels for each competency. This is particularly useful when using the framework for compensation or performance reviews. To do so, take each competency, and divide the related behaviors into measurement scales according to complexity, responsibility, scope, or other relevant criteria. These levels may already exist if you have job grading in place. †¢ Validate and revise the competencies as necessary – For each item, ask these questions: †¢ Is this behavior demonstrated by people who perform the work most effectively? In other words, are people who don’t demonstrate this behavior ineffective in the role? †¢ Is this behavior relevant and necessary for effective work performance? These questions are often asked in the form of a survey. It’s important to look for consensus among the people doing the job, as well as areas where there’s little agreement. Also, look for possible issues with language, or the way the competencies are described, and refine those as well. Step Four: Implement As you roll out the finalized competency framework, remember the principle of communication that we mentioned earlier. To help get buy-in from members of staff at all levels of the organization, it’s important to explain to them why the framework was developed, and how you’d like it to be used. Discuss how it will be updated, and which procedures you’ve put in place to accommodate changes. Here are some tips for implementing the framework: †¢ Link to business objectives – Make connections between individual competencies and organizational goals and values as much as possible. †¢ Reward the competencies – Check that your policies and practices support and reward the competencies identified. †¢ Provide coaching and training – Make sure there’s adequate coaching and training available. People need to know that their efforts will be supported. †¢ Keep it simple – Make the framework as simple as possible. You want the document to be used, not filed away and forgotten. †¢ Communicate – Most importantly, treat the implementation as you would any other change initiative. The more open and honest you are throughout the process, the better the end result – and the better the chances of the project achieving your objectives. [pic] Key Points Creating a competency framework is an effective method to assess, maintain, and monitor the knowledge, skills, and attributes of people in your organization. The framework allows you to measure current competency levels to make sure your staff members have the expertise needed to add value to the business. It also helps managers make informed decisions about talent recruitment, retention, and succession strategies. And, by identifying the specific behaviors and skills needed for each role, it enables you to budget and plan for the training and development your company really needs. The process of creating a competency framework is long and complex. To ensure a successful outcome, involve people actually doing carrying out the roles to evaluate real jobs, and describe real behaviors.

The Primary Cause Of the FAilure

1. Do you think the primary cause of the failure of the two companies that led to the bailout was a management failure, a worker failure, a shareholder or customer failure, some other reason, or a combination of the above? Why is that the case? General Motors was founded by William â€Å"Billy† Durant on September 16, 1908 and has several brands under names such as Chevrolet, Cadillac, and Buick. Chrysler was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925 and it also has many brands such as Jeep, Dodge, Ram, and Fiat. These are two of the biggest American carmakers in the United States and their demise was hard to comprehend. I think there are many reasons that collectively led to the failure of both GM and Chrysler. One of the causes for the demise of both companies was management failure. Management is supposed to lead by making the right choices for themselves and their customers. Management failed to set up financial policies that would benefit their companies in the long run. The financial meltdown of Wall Street led to a national crisis, which made GM and Chrysler unable to borrow money to keep them afloat. The financial meltdown trickled down to consumers who were not able to get loans either to purchase or lease cars. The financial meltdown and car sales having been at their lowest point in a decade is the reason that GM and Chrysler had to file for bankruptcy. GM and Chrysler’s management also failed to anticipate the rise of energy prices. Gas prices skyrocketed to almost four dollars a gallon and with the fragile state of the economy, it made people very conservative about their driving. The rise of gas prices was almost like a death sentence to Chrysler and GM. They have relied on the sales of sport utility vehicles or SUVs as their main source of income. The sport utility vehicles carry an already high price tag and when you add the gas prices you get vehicles that nobody wants to purchase. People wanted to get rid of their SUVs because they just cost too much money to operate. Customers switched to smaller more fuel-efficient vehicles because it became more of a necessity than a choice. Unfortunately GM and Chrysler were not ready to meet the new demand for fuel-efficient vehicles. The cars that GM and Chrysler had on the market were not as fuel efficient as their foreign counterparts, which made the financial stability for the American carmakers uncertain at best. GM and Chrysler’s management failed to acknowledge competition and innovation. Carmakers like Toyota have for many years tried to stay innovative and ahead of the competition by taking risks and investing in research and development. Toyota developed one of the best selling cars in American history called the â€Å"Prius†, which is a very fuel-efficient car. On the other hand GM and Chrysler are just starting to develop electric and hybrid cars. Unfortunately foreign carmakers have the market cornered because neither GM nor Chrysler succeeded in forecasting the needs and wants of the American People. GM and Chrysler still have a bad reputation for the quality of their cars. Nowadays when people think of reliable, fuel-efficient and quality cars most people think of foreign carmakers. GM and Chrysler are trying to change the perception of the quality of their cars, but when a company takes this long to try to change it is very hard to win back some of their customers. I would personally hesitate to buy a car from either company because of what friends and family have said about the problems they have encountered with their cars. I believe it is the management of both companies’ fault that led to their financial demise. Like any other company in the world, it is the people at the top who have the control, knowledge, and resources to make the tough choices and right decisions. I just do not see how it could be the fault of workers who just follow orders and have no say about the management of the company. It cannot be the fault of the customers because most people would not buy a product of poor quality or from a bankrupt company. One of the largest shareholders for GM at the time was Jerry York. He begged the board of directors to take drastic measures to save the company and they decided to ignore him. Now, they are doing some of the things Jerry York suggested because the federal government is forcing them. According to my research, most people feel that it was the poor management that led the American carmakers to bankruptcy and the need for the federal government to bail them out. Citations Seven reasons GM is headed to bankruptcy http://www. usatoday. com/money/autos/2009-05-31-gm-mistakes-bankruptcy_N. htm After 101 years, why GM failed http://www. bspcn. com/2009/06/01/after-101-years-why-gm-failed/ GM in Crisis—5 Reasons Why America's Largest Car Company Teeters on the Edge http://www. popularmechanics. com/cars/news/industry/4292379